44 pages • 1 hour read
Nicomachean Ethics
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Book 1 Summary
Aristotle begins by asserting that every endeavor and action is set forth in pursuit of goodness as an end. This constitutes the foundation of ethics. However, he acknowledges that a desire to achieve what is good does not always produce this outcome. Aristotle suggests that understanding ethics and knowing what must be done to achieve good are keys to reproducing this desired result. He also asserts that the good of society—“the city”—takes precedence over the good of the individual (2). This provides a connection between ethics and political science, which Aristotle uses as the methodology for his study of ethics.
He then sets out to define the terms that dictate his point of study. Aristotle proposes that “good” may be associated with “happiness.” The basis of this claim is that doing good produces happiness in the individual. He rejects certain understandings of the word “happiness,” denying associations with wealth or gratification. Happiness goes beyond these characteristics; it suggests that there is something intangible and singular that can be achieved through good. Aristotle submits that there are three ways people view happiness: through pleasure, politics, and learning. The first two are too superficial to touch the heart of the subject. The last, which Aristotle calls “the life of study,” is to be further examined (5).
To define “good” proves trickier, as it is more nuanced. The philosopher suggests that an all-encompassing definition may not apply to every example of the word. Rather, Aristotle views good through a practical lens by examining actionable principles the individual can apply to this pursuit. He also suggests that good provides an end that is complete, whereas other ends, such as prosperity or fame, are incomplete. This complete end is happiness. Individuals pursue various virtues and actions in their attempts to obtain completion because human beings need functionality. In their professional lives, they seek to produce and have purpose. The same is true in their personal lives: Humans need to produce outcomes, and Aristotle points to good and happiness as results of these efforts.
Achieving happiness requires complexity, so that those who have never suffered or experienced trouble are incapable of producing this outcome. Aristotle presents an understanding of happiness that rejects easiness. Rather, in his view, it is won through virtue, action, and experience. Although circumstances and fortune can influence the trajectory of a person’s life, these are not the deciding factors in a person’s happiness. Instead, the soul produces happiness through virtue.
Book 2 Summary
Book 2 centers on the study of virtue. Aristotle proposes that there are two types of virtue: “virtue of thought and virtue of character” (21). The former requires teaching and time, and the latter is presented through ethics. Humans are not naturally virtuous. In fact, human nature moves in exactly the opposite direction of virtuous character. The only way to obtain virtue is through practice. Humans do not gain virtues merely through interacting with others. Rather, doing the right thing to form habits of the good demands intentional effort.
Aristotle proposes that virtue functions as a kind of balance. On either side of any type of virtue are two vices or two extremes, and virtue is the mean that lies between them. For example, “liberality”—generosity—is a virtue that represents the mean between “prodigality”—spending more than one can afford—and “stinginess.” To find the equilibrium between these two vices—the “middle state” that is virtue—requires pleasure and pain. Each extreme provides information about balance. An understanding of the world through pleasure and pain is something humans share with animals, and these two qualities must be part of the discussion of virtue, as humans’ basic instincts rely upon them to inform their actions.
To distinguish what virtue is, Aristotle examines the three human conditions: “feelings, capacities, and states” (26). He determines that virtue is neither of the first two; thus, utilizing the process of elimination, it must be a state. Virtues improve goodness. Aristotle provides the example of the horse. Every horse has virtues, and those virtues make it a good version of its being. Because good is about function, the virtues allow the horse to function to the best of its ability. Humans also have virtues that make them good humans that function to the best of their abilities. These virtues can be weighed and examined, just as any mathematical principle can. Aristotle suggests that there is a right way to live, and it can be scientifically identified.
He then proposes specific virtues for further examination. The first is bravery, which functions between the vices of cowardice and cockiness. Aristotle also presents temperance and generosity as virtues. He describes magnanimity as a type of honor that functions between the vices of vanity and timidity. He repeatedly emphasizes the importance of the mean and the avoidance of extremes, such as in the example of truth-telling, which represents a mean between bragging, or exaggerating the truth, and diminishing it. Extremes are more likely to produce pleasure, making them a pitfall of vice. Humans are naturally more attracted to extremes than to balance. Therefore, the pursuit of virtue is challenging work that requires determined effort.
Book 3 Summary
Aristotle suggests that understanding virtue requires an examination of its preconditions. First, he dissects voluntary and involuntary virtue. For an action to be voluntary, a choice must be acted on willingly and based on a conscious decision. Aristotle then establishes what a decision is not. He claims that it is not a wish, belief, or spirit; instead, decision requires deliberation and intention. At its core, virtue is about agency; it is achieved only through conscious choice on the part of the individual. Positive outcomes that occur through happenstance or coincidence do not indicate true virtue or agency. The choices individuals make and act on lead to virtue and, therefore, happiness.
Aristotle suggests that this type of deliberation is always about the “means to an end” (42). Humans are concerned with finding the path of least resistance or the correct path to an achievable outcome. The agency that is involved in decision-making endows virtue with agency as well: Humans must actively choose it. Similarly, vice is a choice. Individuals make choices about their actions in the present to achieve an end: happiness. However, the character of a person, which is determined by decisions and actions, influences how that person perceives the end and the means necessary to achieve it.
The rest of the chapter is devoted to exploring and defining two virtues chosen for the study: bravery and temperance. Aristotle details the ways that each virtue is a result of conscious decision. On either side of the virtue of bravery are the vices of cowardice and arrogance. Aristotle shows the foolishness of both vices and asserts that bravery is not an absence of fear. Rather, the virtue of bravery is defined by what the individual does with fear and the strength the individual exhibits in the face of it. He draws a line between true bravery and the appearance of bravery. For example, an ignorant person may appear to be brave due to not fully understanding risk or outcomes. However, true bravery requires complete understanding; individuals must exert strength while fully realizing the dangers inherent in their actions.
Next, Aristotle explores temperance, a virtue that is about pleasure, specifically bodily pleasure. The vices on either side of temperance are the excessive pursuit of pleasure and the denial of it. Aristotle suggests that it is rare for a person to swing to the extreme of total abstinence from pleasure. Rather, humans practice intemperance and do not restrict their pleasures.
Books 1-3 Analysis
Aristotle’s practical, scientific methodology plays a significant role in how he approaches his subject. He begins by establishing his hypothesis: A complete knowledge of ethics will produce a desired outcome of goodness. He then presents a method that exposes limitations and delimitations. He emphasizes that even goodness has negative outcomes for some; therefore, his study of ethics will take a more universal approach, without being weighed down by the many exceptions and nuances of the topic. Aristotle’s scientific approach is born of his predecessor Plato’s methodology: beginning with what is known and following through to theoretical principles. He does this by defining the words that contribute to his study, such as pleasure, pain, vice, virtue, happiness, and good. He also explores what each word is not and puts each definition through a series of puzzles to see how it holds up. This scientific approach is one of the many reasons why Aristotle is considered a founder of modern scientific observation.
Aristotle first establishes that there is an ultimate goal to life: to achieve happiness. He attempts to understand virtue and to fully examine the actions that can produce good and happiness. He believes that science can be utilized to understand the intangible and even matters of the soul. This approach mirrors his final thesis: Study, or contemplation, is the greatest virtue and brings humans closest to divine happiness. Aristotle hints at this thesis through his approach and his patience in tackling the subject of virtues of thought. It is logical that a man who prides himself on his own scientific mind and love of learning determines that contemplation is the greatest good. This is what brings him the most happiness, and he believes it could do the same for others.
These first three books establish a basis for the theme The Meanings of Good and Happiness. Aristotle suggests that all humans want to be good, and all humans want to achieve happiness, regardless of social position or class. He concludes that good and happiness are equivalent. Happiness is achieved only through virtue or right action. Aristotle acknowledges that others may have different views of what happiness is, associating it with money or relationships. For the philosopher, however, these are cheap trinkets compared to the depth and value of true happiness found in contemplation and virtue. True happiness enriches the soul, while surface-level definitions of happiness cause boredom and soon dissolve. This does not mean that desires for money and relationships are not admirable. For example, Aristotle is quick to say that there is nothing wrong with the acquisition of wealth. However, to lead to happiness, it must be tempered with true virtue.
This section also reveals Aristotle’s theme of Finding Balance in Virtue. The philosopher advocates for balance in all parts of his theoretical work, and the emphasis on equilibrium is first seen here in his treatment of virtue. Virtue is an action that represents a mean between two extremes, or vices. Each virtue lies at the center point on a spectrum. Aristotle proposes that hitting that center mark often requires going a little left or right of the middle. In this way, the individual finds balance and achieves virtue. Bravery and temperance serve as perfect examples of this balance, and each virtue is achieved by finding the mean between its set of extremes. The virtues Aristotle selects, organizes, and examines are representative of his historical context. Greek ideology and social norms dictate many of his views on virtue and vice. For example, the emphasis he places on bravery is an extension of a culture that glorifies battle and courage.
Achieving virtue and happiness requires choice and action. A person can appear to live a virtuous life through non-action, but this does not end in happiness. Instead, a person must actively and intentionally choose virtue over vice, denying pleasure and allowing pain where necessary and in moderation. This means understanding how actions affect others and selecting actions that are most beneficial for the common good. Aristotle often frames his ideas within the context of political life or the community. These contexts help round out the meaning and value of virtue on a grander scale and hint at a later theme of The Importance of Relationships for Good. Aristotle understands that humans are not isolated creatures and cannot pursue a virtuous life alone. Attaining the good—and, as a result, achieving happiness—requires existence within a community.
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